† இன்றைய புனிதர் †
(நவம்பர் 15)
✠ புனிதர் ஆல்பர்டஸ் மேக்னஸ் ✠
(St. Albertus Magnus)
ஆயர், மறைவல்லுநர்:
(Bishop, and Doctor of the Church)
பிறப்பு: கி.பி. 1193
லாவீஞ்சன், பவேரியா
(Lauingen, Duchy of Bavaria)
இறப்பு: நவம்பர் 15, 1280
கொலோன், தூய ரோமப் பேரரசு
(Cologne, Holy Roman Empire)
ஏற்கும் சமயம்:
ரோமன் கத்தோலிக்க திருச்சபை
(Roman Catholic Church)
அருளாளர் பட்டம்: கி.பி. 1622
திருத்தந்தை பதினைந்தாம் கிரகோரி
(Pope Gregory XV)
புனிதர் பட்டம்: கி.பி. 1931
திருத்தந்தை பதினொன்றாம் பயஸ்
(Pope Pius XI)
முக்கிய திருத்தலங்கள்:
புனித ஆண்ட்ரூஸ் தேவாலயம், கொலோன், ஜெர்மனி
(St. Andrew's Church, Cologne, Germany)
நினைவுத் திருவிழா: நவம்பர் 15
பாதுகாவல்:
சின்சினாட்டி (Cincinnati), ஓஹியோ (Ohio), உலக இளையோர் நாள், இயற்கை அறிவியல், மருத்துவ தொழில்நுட்ப வல்லுனர்கள், தத்துவ ஞானிகள், விஞ்ஞானிகள், மாணவர்கள்
“புனிதர் பெரிய ஆல்பர்ட்” (Saint Albert the Great) என்றும், “புனிதர் ஆல்பர்டஸ் மேக்னஸ்” (St. Albertus Magnus) என்றும், “புனிதர் கொலோனின் ஆல்பெர்ட்” (St. Albert of Cologne) என்றும் அழைக்கப்படும் இவர், ஒரு கத்தோலிக்க புனிதர் ஆவார். இவர் “ஜெர்மனிய டொமினிக்கன் சபைத் துறவியும்” (German Dominican friar) ஆயரும் ஆவார். இவர் தம் வாழ்நாளில் 'அகற்பொது முனைவர்' என்றும் 'புலவாண்மை முனைவர்' என்றும் பாராட்டப்பட்டவர். வாழ்நாள் இறுதியில் தன்பெயருக்கு முன் புனித என்பது மட்டுமன்றி பெரியவர் என்ற பெருமையையும் பெற்றவர்.
“ஜேம்ஸ் ஏ. வீஷிபிள்” (James A. Weisheipl) மற்றும் “ஜோச்சிம் ஆர்.சோடர்” (Joachim R. Söder) போன்ற அறிஞர்கள், இவரை ஜெர்மனியின் “மத்தியகாலத்தின்” (Middle Ages) மாபெரும் தத்துவஞானியாகவும், இறையியலாளராகவும் புகழ்கின்றனர். கத்தோலிக்கத் திருச்சபை இவரை “திருச்சபை (மறையியல்) முனைவராக” தகைமையீந்து பெருமதிப்பு தந்தது. இதுபோல திருச்சபையின் தகைமை பெற்றவர் 36 பேரே என்பது குறிப்பிடத்தக்கதாகும்.
உலக அளவில் மாபெரும் மேதையாக அறியப்பட்ட இவரின் ஆர்வம் அறிவியல், மெய்யியல், இறையியல் என பரந்து விரிந்ததாய் இருந்தது. “ஆர்சனிக்” (Arsenic) என்ற இரசாயன தனிமத்தை கண்டுபிடித்தவர் இவரேயாவார். அத்துடன் “சில்வர் நைட்ரேட்” (Silver nitrate) உள்ளிட்ட ஒளியுணர் கனிம கலவையையும் ஆராய்ந்தவர் இவரே.
கிறிஸ்தவ நம்பிக்கை பகுத்தறிவுக்கு எதிரானது அல்ல என்றும், இவ்வுலகப் படைப்பானது, இறைவனால் எழுதப்பட்ட ஒரு புத்தகமாக நோக்கப்பட்டு, வெவ்வேறு அறிவியல்களால் அதனதன் வகையில் வாசிக்கப்பட்டு புரிந்துகொள்ளப்பட முடியும் என்பதனை இப்புனிதர் வெளிப்படுத்துகிறார். அரிஸ்டாட்டில் குறித்த இப்புனிதரின் எழுத்துக்கள் மெய்யியல் மற்றும் இறையியல் எனும் அறிவியல்களுக்கிடையேயான வேறுபாடுகளைக் காட்டுகின்றது.
வாழ்க்கை வரலாறு:
ஆல்பெர்ட், கி.பி. 1280ம் ஆண்டில் மரித்தபோது இவருக்கு 80 வயது எனக் கூறப்படுவதால், இவர் கி.பி. 1200க்கு முன்பே பிறந்துள்ளார். ஒன்றுக்கும் மேற்பட்ட தக்க சான்றுகளின்படி, இறக்கும்போது 87 வயது முடிந்திருந்ததாக அறியப்படுவதால், இவர் கி.பி. 1193ல் பிறந்ததாகப் பொதுவாக ஏற்கப்படுகிறது. ஆல்பெர்ட், (தற்போது, “பவரியா” (Bavaria) எனப்படும்) “லாவீஞ்சனில்” (Lauingen) பிறந்திருக்கலாம். ஏனெனில் இவர் தன்னை “லாவீஞ்சனின்” ஆல்பெர்ட் என அழைத்துக்கொண்டார். அல்லது அது வெறுமனே அவர் குடும்பப் பெயராகவும் இருக்கலாம்.
ஆல்பர்ட், பெரும்பாலும் “பதுவை” (University of Padua) பல்கலைக்கழகத்தில் கல்வி கற்றார். “ருடொல்ஃப் டி நொவமகியா” (Rudolph de Novamagia) எனும் சரித்திர ஆசிரியரின் கூற்றின்படி, பிற்காலத்தில், ஆல்பர்ட்டுக்கு அர்ச்சிஷ்ட கன்னி மரியாள் திருக்காட்சியளித்ததாக கூறப்படுகிறது. அன்னையின் உந்துதல் மற்றும் திருவுளப்படி, ஆல்பர்ட், கி.பி. 1223 அல்லது 1229ம் ஆண்டில் டொமினிக்கன் (Dominican Order) சபையின் உறுப்பினராகி, “போலோக்னா” (Bologna) மற்றும் பிற இடங்களில் இறையியல் கற்றார்.
இறையியலில் மாபெரும் தேர்ச்சி பெற்ற இவர், பாரீசில் தன் படிப்பை முடித்தபின் “கொலோனில்” (Cologne) கல்வி கற்பிக்கும் பணியைத் துவக்கினார். இவர், கற்பிப்பதற்கும் எழுதுவதற்கும் என திரும்பினார். இவர், “ரீகன்ஸ்பர்க்” (Regensburg), “ஃப்ரேய்பர்க்” (Freiburg), “ஸ்ட்ராஸ்பௌர்க்” (Strasbourg) மற்றும் “ஹில்ட்ஷெய்ம்” (Hildesheim) ஆகிய இடங்களிலுள்ள பல பல்கலை கழகங்களில் இறையியல் பேராசிரியராக பணிபுரிந்தார். இவரது வகுப்புகள் மிகவும் சிறந்த முறையில் இருந்ததால், மிக அதிகமான எண்ணிக்கையில் மாணவர்கள் இவரது வகுப்புகளுக்கு வந்தனர். இதனால், இவரது பாடங்களை வகுப்புகளில் நடத்த முடியாமல், திறந்த வெளிகளில் நடத்தினார்.
கி.பி. 1254ம் ஆண்டு, ஆல்பர்ட் டொமினிக்கன் சபையின் தலைவராக நியமிக்கப்பட்டார். பெரும் கவனிப்பு மற்றும் செயல்திறனுடன் அலுவலக கடமைகளை நிறைவேற்றினார்.
கி.பி. 1260ம் ஆண்டில், திருத்தந்தை “நான்காம் அலெக்சாண்டர்” (Pope Alexander IV) இவரை ஜெர்மனியின் “பவரியாவிலுள்ள” (Bavaria) “ரீகன்ஸ்பர்க்” (Regensburg) ஆயராக நியமித்தார். மூன்று வருடங்களின் பின்னர், அவர் அந்த பதவியிலிருந்து விலகினார். 1263ம் ஆண்டு, இவரை ஆயர் பதவியிலிருந்து விலக அனுமதித்த திருத்தந்தை “நான்காம் அர்பன்” (Pope Urban IV), இவரை ஜெர்மன் மொழி பேசும் நாடுகளில் “எட்டாவது சிலுவைப் போரை” (Eighth Crusade) போதிக்குமாறு கூறினார்.
கி.பி. 1278ம் ஆண்டு, இவரது உடல் ஆரோக்கியம் சீர்குலைந்து போன பிறகு, கி.பி. 1280ம் ஆண்டு, நவம்பர் மாதம், 15ம் நாள், ஆல்பர்ட், மரித்துப்போனார்.
கி.பி. 1931ம் ஆண்டு, திருத்தந்தை பதினொன்றாம் பயஸ் (Pope Pius XI), இவரை புனிதராகவும், மறைவல்லுனராகவும் உயர்த்தினார். 1941ம் ஆண்டு, திருத்தந்தை “பன்னிரண்டாம் பயஸ்” (Pope Pius XII), இவரை இயற்கை சார்ந்த அறிவியல் விஞ்ஞானிகளின் பாதுகாவலராக அறிவித்தார்.
St. Albert the Great
.Feastday: November 15.
Patron: of scientists, philosophers, medical technicians, natural sciences
Birth: 1200
Death: 1280
Beatified: 1622 by Pope Gregory XV
Canonized: 1931 by Pope Pius XI
Image of St. Albert the Great
The saint and doctor of the Church who would be known as Albertus Magnus was born sometime before the year 1200. He was probably born in Bavaria, a fact we infer because he referred to himself as "Albert of Lauingen," a town which still stands today in southern Germany.
We do not know for sure all the details of his family origins, but we know he was well educated. He attended the University of Padua where he learned about Aristotle and his writings. This instruction in philosophy would become the foundation of his later work.
Sometime around the year 1223 or so, Albert experienced an encounter with the Blessed Virgin Mary. This encounter moved him so much that he chose to become a member of the Dominican Order. He thereafter studied theology.
He excelled in his studies and later became a lecturer for the Dominicans at Cologne. He also traveled around the region to lecture gaining regional, then international acclaim.
At the same time he started lecturing, Albert produced "Summa de Bono," after collaboration with Phillip the Chancellor, who was a renown theologian from France.
In 1245, Albert became a master of theology under Gueruc of Saint-Quentin. He was the first German Dominican to achieve the title. He later went on to teach theology at the University of Paris, and became the Chair of Theology at the College of St. James. One of his students was the famous Thomas Aquinas who would also become a doctor of the Church and a saint.
Albert was very interested in Aristotle, and he made commentary on nearly all of Aristotle's works. He also studied the teachings of several Muslim scholars. At this time, the Islamic world led Europe in terms of scholarship, science, and medicine.
In 1254, Albert became the provincial of the Dominican Order. By all accounts, he was a capable and efficient administrator.
Five years later, in 1259, Albert participated in the General Chapter of the Dominicans along with Thomas Aquinas and several other contemporary leaders of the Order. They created a program of study for the Dominican order and developed a curriculum for philosophy. From this course of study would later arise the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, in Rome. Today, the university which is known as the "Angelicum," is one of the foremost theological colleges in the world. It is still run by the Dominican order.
In 1260, impressed with his acumen, Pope Alexander IV appointed Albert as bishop of Regensburg. Although he was a bishop, Albert refused to ride a horse and went everywhere on foot. This seemingly unusual practice was consistent with the rules of his order. The life of a bishop did not agree with Albert and he resigned from his post in 1263.
In that same year, Pope Urban IV accepted his resignation and reassigned him to preach about the Eighth Crusade to German-speaking people. The crusade was intended to recapture the city of Tunis in North Africa for Christendom, and was a total failure.
In his later years, Albert became renowned as a mediator. He mediated disputes between individuals as well as resolving a dispute between the people of Colonge and their bishop. He also founded Germany's oldest university in that city.
Before his death, he mourned the early passing of his great student, Thomas Aquinas, who would later be recognized as a saint and doctor of the Church. Aquinas died in 1274. Albert spent his last years defending the work of Aquinas which is among the most important work in the Church.
Albert became ill in 1278 and he died on November 15, 1280.
During his life, Albert wrote thirty eight volumes covering topics ranging from philosophy to geography, astronomy, law, friendship and love.
Three years after his death, his grave was opened and his body found to be incorrupt. When his grave was again opened centuries later in 1483, they only found his skeleton. His relics are presently found in the St. Andreas church in Colonge.
Albert was beatified in 1622 by Pope Gregory XV. He was canonized and recognized as a doctor of the Church in 1931, by Pope Pius IX. He is the patron saint of scientists. His feast day is November 15.
"Albertus" redirects here. For others with the same given name, see Albertus (given name). For the typeface, see Albertus (typeface).
"Albert the Great" redirects here. For the American Thoroughbred racehorse, see Albert the Great (horse).
For the asteroid, see 20006 Albertus Magnus.
Albertus Magnus[7] (before 1200 – November 15, 1280), also known as Saint Albert the Great and Albert of Cologne, was a German Catholic Dominican friar and bishop. Later canonised as a Catholic saint, he was known during his lifetime as Doctor universalis and Doctor expertus and, late in his life, the sobriquet Magnus was appended to his name.[8] Scholars such as James A. Weisheipl and Joachim R. Söder have referred to him as the greatest German philosopher and theologian of the Middle Ages.[9] The Catholic Church distinguishes him as one of the 36 Doctors of the Church.
Biography
It seems likely that Albert was born sometime before 1200, given well-attested evidence that he was aged over 80 on his death in 1280. Two later sources say that Albert was about 87 on his death, which has led 1193 to be commonly given as the date of Albert's birth, but this information has not enough evidence.[10] Albert was probably born in Lauingen (now in Bavaria), since he called himself 'Albert of Lauingen', but this might simply be a family name. Most probably his family was of ministerial class; his familiar connection with (being son of the count) the Bollstädt noble family is almost certainly mere conjecture by 15th c. hagiographers.[10][failed verification]
Albert was probably educated principally at the University of Padua, where he received instruction in Aristotle's writings. A late account by Rudolph de Novamagia refers to Albertus' encounter with the Blessed Virgin Mary, who convinced him to enter Holy Orders. In 1223 (or 1229)[11] he became a member of the Dominican Order, and studied theology at Bologna and elsewhere. Selected to fill the position of lecturer at Cologne, Germany, where the Dominicans had a house, he taught for several years there, as well as in Regensburg, Freiburg, Strasbourg, and Hildesheim. During his first tenure as lecturer at Cologne, Albert wrote his Summa de bono after discussion with Philip the Chancellor concerning the transcendental properties of being.[12] In 1245, Albert became master of theology under Gueric of Saint-Quentin, the first German Dominican to achieve this distinction. Following this turn of events, Albert was able to teach theology at the University of Paris as a full-time professor, holding the seat of the Chair of Theology at the College of St. James.[12][13] During this time Thomas Aquinas began to study under Albertus.[14]
Bust of Albertus Magnus by Vincenzo Onofri, c. 1493
Albert was the first to comment on virtually all of the writings of Aristotle, thus making them accessible to wider academic debate. The study of Aristotle brought him to study and comment on the teachings of Muslim academics, notably Avicenna and Averroes, and this would bring him into the heart of academic debate.
In 1254 Albert was made provincial of the Dominican Order,[14] and fulfilled the duties of the office with great care and efficiency. During his tenure he publicly defended the Dominicans against attacks by the secular and regular faculty of the University of Paris, commented on John the Evangelist, and answered what he perceived as errors of the Islamic philosopher Averroes.
In 1259 Albert took part in the General Chapter of the Dominicans at Valenciennes together with Thomas Aquinas, masters Bonushomo Britto,[15] Florentius,[16] and Peter (later Pope Innocent V) establishing a ratio studiorum or program of studies for the Dominicans[17] that featured the study of philosophy as an innovation for those not sufficiently trained to study theology. This innovation initiated the tradition of Dominican scholastic philosophy put into practice, for example, in 1265 at the Order's studium provinciale at the convent of Santa Sabina in Rome, out of which would develop the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, the "Angelicum".[18]
Roman sarcophagus containing the relics of Albertus Magnus in the crypt of St. Andrew's Church, Cologne, Germany
In 1260 Pope Alexander IV made him bishop of Regensburg, an office from which he resigned after three years. During the exercise of his duties he enhanced his reputation for humility by refusing to ride a horse, in accord with the dictates of the Order, instead traversing his huge diocese on foot. This earned him the affectionate sobriquet "boots the bishop" from his parishioners. In 1263 Pope Urban IV relieved him of the duties of bishop and asked him to preach the eighth Crusade in German-speaking countries.[19] After this, he was especially known for acting as a mediator between conflicting parties. In Cologne he is known not only for being the founder of Germany's oldest university there, but also for "the big verdict" (der Große Schied) of 1258, which brought an end to the conflict between the citizens of Cologne and the archbishop. Among the last of his labors was the defense of the orthodoxy of his former pupil, Thomas Aquinas, whose death in 1274 grieved Albert (the story that he travelled to Paris in person to defend the teachings of Aquinas can not be confirmed).
Albert was a scientist, philosopher, astrologer, theologian, spiritual writer, ecumenist, and diplomat. Under the auspices of Humbert of Romans, Albert molded the curriculum of studies for all Dominican students, introduced Aristotle to the classroom and probed the work of Neoplatonists, such as Plotinus. Indeed, it was the thirty years of work done by Aquinas and himself that allowed for the inclusion of Aristotelian study in the curriculum of Dominican schools.
After suffering a collapse of health in 1278, he died on November 15, 1280, in the Dominican convent in Cologne, Germany. Since November 15, 1954, his relics are in a Roman sarcophagus in the crypt of the Dominican St. Andreas Church in Cologne.[20] Although his body was discovered to be incorrupt at the first exhumation three years after his death, at the exhumation in 1483 only a skeleton remained.[21]
Albert was beatified in 1622. He was canonized and proclaimed a Doctor of the Church on December 16, 1931, by Pope Pius XI[19] and the patron saint of natural scientists in 1941. St. Albert's feast day is November 15.
Writings
Albertus Magnus monument at the University of Cologne
Albert's writings collected in 1899 went to thirty-eight volumes. These displayed his prolific habits and encyclopedic knowledge of topics such as logic, theology, botany, geography, astronomy, astrology, mineralogy, alchemy, zoology, physiology, phrenology, justice, law, friendship, and love. He digested, interpreted, and systematized the whole of Aristotle's works, gleaned from the Latin translations and notes of the Arabian commentators, in accordance with Church doctrine. Most modern knowledge of Aristotle was preserved and presented by Albert.[14]
His principal theological works are a commentary in three volumes on the Books of the Sentences of Peter Lombard (Magister Sententiarum), and the Summa Theologiae in two volumes. The latter is in substance a more didactic repetition of the former.
Albert's activity, however, was more philosophical than theological (see Scholasticism). The philosophical works, occupying the first six and the last of the 21 volumes, are generally divided according to the Aristotelian scheme of the sciences, and consist of interpretations and condensations of Aristotle's relative works, with supplementary discussions upon contemporary topics, and occasional divergences from the opinions of the master. Albert believed that Aristotle's approach to natural philosophy did not pose any obstacle to the development of a Christian philosophical view of the natural order.[19]
De animalibus (1450–1500 ca., cod. fiesolano 67, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana)
Albert's knowledge of natural science was considerable and for the age remarkably accurate. His industry in every department was great: not only did he produce commentaries and paraphrases of the entire Aristotelian corpus, including his scientific works, but Albert also added to and improved upon them. His books on topics like botany, zoology, and minerals included information from ancient sources, but also results of his own empirical investigations. These investigations pushed several of the special sciences forward, beyond the reliance on classical texts. In the case of embryology, for example, it has been claimed that little of value was written between Aristotle and Albert, who managed to identify organs within eggs.[22] Furthermore, Albert also effectively invented entire special sciences, where Aristotle has not covered a topic. For example, prior to Albert, there was no systematic study of minerals.[23] For the breadth of these achievements, he was bestowed the name Doctor Universalis.
Much of Albert's empirical contributions to the natural sciences have been superseded, but his general approach to science may be surprisingly modern. For example, in De Mineralibus (Book II, Tractate ii, Ch. 1) Albert claims, "For it is [the task] of natural science not simply to accept what we are told but to inquire into the causes of natural things."[23]
Alchemy
Albertus Magnus, Chimistes Celebres, Liebig's Extract of Meat Company Trading Card, 1929
In the centuries since his death, many stories arose about Albert as an alchemist and magician. "Much of the modern confusion results from the fact that later works, particularly the alchemical work known as the Secreta Alberti or the Experimenta Alberti, were falsely attributed to Albertus by their authors to increase the prestige of the text through association."[24] On the subject of alchemy and chemistry, many treatises relating to alchemy have been attributed to him, though in his authentic writings he had little to say on the subject, and then mostly through commentary on Aristotle. For example, in his commentary, De mineralibus, he refers to the power of stones, but does not elaborate on what these powers might be.[25] A wide range of Pseudo-Albertine works dealing with alchemy exist, though, showing the belief developed in the generations following Albert's death that he had mastered alchemy, one of the fundamental sciences of the Middle Ages. These include Metals and Materials; the Secrets of Chemistry; the Origin of Metals; the Origins of Compounds, and a Concordance which is a collection of Observations on the philosopher's stone; and other alchemy-chemistry topics, collected under the name of Theatrum Chemicum.[26] He is credited with the discovery of the element arsenic[27] and experimented with photosensitive chemicals, including silver nitrate.[28][29] He did believe that stones had occult properties, as he related in his work De mineralibus. However, there is scant evidence that he personally performed alchemical experiments.
According to legend, Albert is said to have discovered the philosopher's stone and passed it on to his pupil Thomas Aquinas, shortly before his death. Albert does not confirm he discovered the stone in his writings, but he did record that he witnessed the creation of gold by "transmutation."[30] Given that Thomas Aquinas died six years before Albert's death, this legend as stated is unlikely.
Astronomy
Albert was deeply interested in astronomy, as has been articulated by scholars such as Paola Zambelli[31] and Scott Hendrix.[32] Throughout the Middle Ages –and well into the early modern period– astrology was widely accepted by scientists and intellectuals who held the view that life on earth is effectively a microcosm within the macrocosm (the latter being the cosmos itself). It was believed that correspondence therefore exists between the two and thus the celestial bodies follow patterns and cycles analogous to those on earth. With this worldview, it seemed reasonable to assert that astrology could be used to predict the probable future of a human being. Albert argued that an understanding of the celestial influences affecting us could help us to live our lives more in accord with Christian precepts.[32] The most comprehensive statement of his astrological beliefs is to be found in a work he authored around 1260, now known as the Speculum astronomiae. However, details of these beliefs can be found in almost everything he wrote, from his early De natura boni to his last work, the Summa theologiae.[33]
Matter and form
Albert believed that all natural things were compositions of matter and form, he referred to it as quod est and quo est. Albert also believed that God alone is the absolute ruling entity. Albert's version of hylomorphism is very similar to the Aristotelian doctrine.
Music
Albert is known for his commentary on the musical practice of his times. Most of his written musical observations are found in his commentary on Aristotle's Poetics. He rejected the idea of "music of the spheres" as ridiculous: movement of astronomical bodies, he supposed, is incapable of generating sound. He wrote extensively on proportions in music, and on the three different subjective levels on which plainchant could work on the human soul: purging of the impure; illumination leading to contemplation; and nourishing perfection through contemplation. Of particular interest to 20th-century music theorists is the attention he paid to silence as an integral part of music.
Metaphysics of morals
Both of his early treatises, De natura boni and De bono, start with a metaphysical investigation into the concepts of the good in general and the physical good. Albert refers to the physical good as bonum naturae. Albert does this before directly dealing with the moral concepts of metaphysics. In Albert's later works, he says in order to understand human or moral goodness, the individual must first recognize what it means to be good and do good deeds. This procedure reflects Albert's preoccupations with neo-Platonic theories of good as well as the doctrines of Pseudo-Dionysius.[34] Albert's view was highly valued by the Catholic Church and his peers.
Natural law
Albert devoted the last tractatus of De Bono to a theory of justice and natural law. Albert places God as the pinnacle of justice and natural law. God legislates and divine authority is supreme. Up until his time, it was the only work specifically devoted to natural law written by a theologian or philosopher.[35]
Friendship
Albert mentions friendship in his work, De bono, as well as presenting his ideals and morals of friendship in the very beginning of Tractatus II. Later in his life he published Super Ethica.[36] With his development of friendship throughout his work it is evident that friendship ideals and morals took relevance as his life went on. Albert comments on Aristotle's view of friendship with a quote from Cicero, who writes, "friendship is nothing other than the harmony between things divine and human, with goodwill and love". Albert agrees with this commentary but he also adds in harmony or agreement.[37] Albert calls this harmony, consensio, itself a certain kind of movement within the human spirit. Albert fully agrees with Aristotle in the sense that friendship is a virtue. Albert relates the inherent metaphysical contentedness between friendship and moral goodness. Albert describes several levels of goodness; the useful (utile), the pleasurable (delectabile) and the authentic or unqualified good (honestum). Then in turn there are three levels of friendship based on each of those levels, namely friendship based on usefulness (amicitia utilis), friendship based on pleasure (amicitia delectabilis), and friendship rooted in unqualified goodness (amicitia honesti; amicitia quae fundatur super honestum).[38]
Cultural references
The tympanum and archivolts of Strasbourg Cathedral, with iconography inspired by Albertus Magnus
The iconography of the tympanum and archivolts of the late 13th-century portal of Strasbourg Cathedral was inspired by Albert's writings.[39] Albert is frequently mentioned by Dante, who made his doctrine of free will the basis of his ethical system. In his Divine Comedy, Dante places Albertus with his pupil Thomas Aquinas among the great lovers of wisdom (Spiriti Sapienti) in the Heaven of the Sun. Albert is also mentioned, along with Agrippa and Paracelsus, in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, in which his writings influence a young Victor Frankenstein.
In The Concept of Anxiety, Søren Kierkegaard wrote that Albert, "arrogantly boasted of his speculation before the deity and suddenly became stupid." Kierkegaard cites Gotthard Oswald Marbach whom he quotes as saying "Albertus repente ex asino factus philosophus et ex philosopho asinus" [Albert was suddenly transformed from an ass into a philosopher and from a philosopher into an ass].[40]
Johann Eduard Erdmann considers Albert greater and more original than his pupil Aquinas.[41]
Influence and tribute
Painting by Joos (Justus) van Gent, Urbino, c. 1475
A number of schools have been named after Albert, including Albertus Magnus High School in Bardonia, New York;[42] Albertus Magnus Lyceum in River Forest, Illinois; and Albertus Magnus College in New Haven, Connecticut.[43]
Albertus Magnus Science Hall at Thomas Aquinas College, in Santa Paula, California, is named in honor of Albert. The main science buildings at Providence College and Aquinas College in Grand Rapids, Michigan, are also named after him.
The central square at the campus of the University of Cologne features a statue of Albert and is named after him.
The Academy for Science and Design in New Hampshire honored Albert by naming one of its four houses Magnus House.
As a tribute to the scholar's contributions to the law, the University of Houston Law Center displays a statue of Albert. It is located on the campus of the University of Houston.
The Albertus-Magnus-Gymnasien is found in Rottweil, Germany.
In Managua, Nicaragua, the Albertus Magnus International Institute, a business and economic development research center, was founded in 2004.
University of Santo Tomas in the Philippines
In The Philippines, the Albertus Magnus Building at the University of Santo Tomas that houses the Conservatory of Music, College of Tourism and Hospitality Management, College of Education, and UST Education High School is named in his honor. The Saint Albert the Great Science Academy in San Carlos City, Pangasinan, which offers preschool, elementary and high school education, takes pride in having St. Albert as their patron saint. Its main building was named Albertus Magnus Hall in 2008. San Alberto Magno Academy in Tubao, La Union is also dedicated in his honor. This century-old Catholic high school continues to live on its vision-mission up to this day, offering Senior High school courses. Due to his contributions to natural philosophy, the plant species Alberta magna and the asteroid 20006 Albertus Magnus were named after him.
Numerous Catholic elementary and secondary schools are named for him, including schools in Toronto; Calgary; Cologne; and Dayton, Ohio.
The Albertus typeface is named after him.[44] At the University of Notre Dame du Lac in South Bend, Indiana, USA, the Zahm House Chapel is dedicated to St. Albert the Great. Fr. John Zahm, C.S.C., after whom the men's residence hall is named, looked to St. Albert's example of using religion to illumine scientific discovery. Fr. Zahm's work with the Bible and evolution is sometimes seen as a continuation of St. Albert's legacy.
The second largest student's fraternity of the Netherlands, located in the city of Groningen, is named Albertus Magnus, in honor of the saint.
The Colegio Cientifico y Artistico de San Alberto, Hopelawn, New Jersey, USA with a sister school in Nueva Ecija, Philippines was founded in 1986 in honor of him who thought and taught that religion, the sciences and the arts may be advocated as subjects which should not contradict each other but should support one another to achieve wisdom and reason.
The Vosloorus catholic parish (located in Vosloorus Extension One, Ekurhuleni, Gauteng, South Africa) is named after the saint.
The catholic parish in Leopoldshafen, near Karlsruhe in Germany is also named after him also considering the huge research center of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology nearby, as he is the patron saint of scientists.
Since the death of King Albert I, the King's Feast is celebrated in Belgium on Albert's feast day.
Edinburgh's Catholic Chaplaincy serving the city's universities is named after St Albert.
